Critical Thinking Questions
President Adams
Revolution of 1800
Westward Expansion

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What are John Adams' Contributions to US Government Precedents?

2. How did a 2-Party System emerge out of this time period?

3. Why was Jefferson's Victory considered a "Revolution"?

4. What prompted the US to expand westward?

5. How did this era contribute to the US military ?

President Adams

Election of 1796

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John Adams became the Federalist candidate: experienced leader from Massachusetts.

Hamilton too unpopular among the masses to be a serious candidate

Democratic-Republicans gathered around Thomas Jefferson

Assailed the crushing of the Whiskey Rebellion and Jay's Treaty

Adams d. Jefferson 71 to 66 in the Electoral College

Jefferson, as runner-up, became V.P.

War with France

French Directory government infuriated by Jay Treaty

Condemned it as an initial step towards alliance with Britain
Saw it as a flagrant violation of the Franco-American Treaty of 1778
French warships began seizing U.S. merchant vessels (about 300 by mid-1797)
Refused to receive America's newly appointed envoy; threatened him with arrest.

XYZ Affair

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President Adams sent a delegation to Paris in 1797 (incl. John Marshall).

Secretly approached by three go-betweeners (agents"X,Y, & Z")
French demanded a large loan of $32 million florins and a bribe of $250K for U.S. privilege of merely talking to foreign minister Talleyrand.
Negotiations broke down and Marshall came home—seen as a hero
War hysteria swept the U.S.

Federalists encouraged that the Jeffersonians' ally (French) was now hated

Undeclared Naval Warfare, 1798-1799 -- “Quasi -War”

U.S. war preparations set in motion

Navy Department at the cabinet level was created: 3 ship navy expanded
Marine Corps established
Army of 10,000 men was authorized (not fully raised)

Washington was top general but gave active command to Hamilton

Adams suspended all trade with France and authorized American ship captains to capture armed French vessels

Undeclared hostilities ensued for 2 1/2 years between 1798-1800

Principally in the West Indies.
U.S. privateers + U.S. navy captured over 80 French armed vessels
Several hundred Yankee merchantmen lost to the French.
Full-blown war loomed imminently and Adams sought to keep U.S. out

Convention of 1800 (Adam's “Finest Moment”)

French Foreign Minister Talleyrand became eager to negotiate a peace

Did not want another enemy on the side of the British

Adams shockingly submitted to the Senate a new foreign minister to France

Hamiltonian "High Federalists" enraged by designs for peace; sought military glory
Jeffersonians and moderate Federalists favored one last try for peace

Envoys arrived in 1800 to negotiate with Napoleon (who was bent on European conquest)
Convention of 1800

France agreed to end the 22-year Franco-American alliance with the U.S.
U.S. agreed to pay the damage claims of American shippers.
Thus, America's only peacetime military alliance for a century and a half was ended

Significance:

Major war with France avoided
Rapprochement made possible the Louisiana Purchase 3 years later.

If war had occurred, Napoleon would not have sold Louisiana

Adams felt this to be his finest achievement.

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

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Purpose: Federalists passed a series of oppressive laws in 1798 that would reduce power of Jeffersonian foes and silence anti-war opposition

Alien Acts

Attack on pro-Jeffersonian "aliens"

Most immigrants lacked wealth and were welcomed by Jeffersonians.
Scorned by Federalists who did not want the "dregs" of Europe voting in U.S.

Raised residence requirements for U.S. citizenship from 5 yrs to 14 yrs.

President empowered to deport "dangerous" foreigners in time of peace and to deport or imprison them in time of hostilities.

Laws in some ways seemed sensible

Some foreign agitators were coming into the country (Citizen Genet)
Many from France sought anti-British policies
Others were foreign agents who should have been expelled.

Alien Acts never enforced but some frightened foreign agitators left

Sedition Act

Anyone who impeded the policies of gov't or falsely defamed its officials, incl. the president, would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment.

Direct violation of the 1st Amendment to the Constitution

Federalist Supreme Court not interested in declaring it unconstitutional.

Many outspoken Jeffersonian editors were indicted; 10 brought to trial & convicted

Law expired in 1801 the day before Adams left office.

Demonstrated dubious intentions of bill (in case a Federalist was not elected in1800, Republicans would not have the Sedition Act to prosecute Federalists.)

Popular support for Alien and Sedition Acts significant

Anti-French hysteria played into the hands of the Federalists
Largest ever Federalist victory in 1798-99 congressional elections

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (Jefferson and Madison)

Republicans convinced Alien and Sedition acts were unconstitutional

Process of deciding constitutionality of federal laws hitherto undefined

Jefferson & Madison secretly created a series of resolutions

As V.P. Jefferson in awkward position & feared prosecution from Sedition Act

Premise: States had the right to nullify unconstitutional laws passed by Congress
Aim not to break up the union but preserve it by protecting civil liberties.

Essentially campaign documents to defeat the Federalists

Compact Theory

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Popular among 17th c. English political philosophers (John Locke)

13 sovereign states created the federal gov't & had entered a "compact"

Thus, national gov't was an agent or creation of the states.

Nullification: Individual states were the final judges of whether a federal law was constitutional.

Result:

No other states passed the Jefferson & Madison resolutions

Federalists argued that the people, not the states, had made the original compact

Argued Supreme Court, not states, could nullify laws.

Significance: Later used by southerners to support nullification and ultimately secession prior to Civil War.

Revolution of 1800

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Jefferson's "Revolution of 1800"

Federalist split over going to war with France biggest reason for Adam’s defeat

Hamilton and "High Federalists" openly broke from Adams for his refusal to fight against France
Alien and Sedition Acts
Federalists swelled the debt in preparation for war with France.

New taxes (incl. a stamp tax) were levied to pay the costs.

Military preparations now seemed unnecessary

Federalist mudslinging accused Jefferson of:

being an atheist (Jefferson really a deist)

His success with separating church & state in Virginia incurred the wrath of the orthodox clergy esp. in Congregationalist & Federalist New England.

robbing a widow and her children of a trust fund
fathering mulatto children by his own slave woman (note: in 1998, genetic tests apparently proved that Jefferson had fathered at least one child from his slave mistress, Sally Hemmings)

Jefferson Defeats Adams: 73 to 65

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Most support from South & West where universal manhood suffrage was adopted.

New York was the pivotal key: Aaron Burr narrowly turned NY to Jefferson

Yet, Jefferson tied with Burr, his V.P. running mate, for electoral votes

House of Representatives had to break the deadlock
Federalists wanted Burr; hated Jefferson
Eventually, a few anti-Burr Federalists, refrained from voting and Jefferson became president (swayed by Hamilton; Burr now hates Hamilton)

Significance: Peaceful change of power was revolutionary

Transfer of power on a basis of an election that all parties accepted
Britain would not achieve the same stature for another generation.

Federalist Legacy (Still Present Today)

Highest concentration of brains, talent, and ability in a party than any other in U.S. History.

Party of the elite

Built enduring political and financial foundations for the new gov't

Washington’s presidency and Hamilton’s financial plan

Diplomats kept the U.S. out of war and signed advantageous treaties with Br. Fr. & Sp.

Preserved democratic gains of the Revolution and fended off anarchy.

Opposition to party resulted in creation of two-party system.

Federalist demise a result its inability to adapt to changes

Westward movement dictated fresh policies
Unwilling to adjust and appeal to the common people.

President Jefferson

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"Revolution of 1800" -- significant for its unprecedented democratic peaceful transfer of power

Inaugural speech:

"We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists."

Sought to bring in moderate Federalists into broad Republican coalition (but excluding Hamilton & his "High Federalist" followers).

Pledged "honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none."

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First party overturn in the history of the country

Significance: Demonstrated the efficacy of a two-party system

Jefferson's governing style less pretentious than Federalists

Established rule of sending a clerk to read presidential messages (e.g. annual message)
Contrasted with Federalist practice of president making personal appearances which seemed to much like monarchical speeches from the throne
This precedent unbroken until Woodrow Wilson in 1913.
Established rule of small dinners with seating without rank.
Often received callers in sloppy attire; aristocrats shocked Jefferson shook hands with guests.
Reduced the number and grandeur of formal balls, levees, and dinners.
Rode on horseback about the Capital instead of using a carriage.

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Reversal of political principles he championed as a private citizen

Kept most public servants from the Federalist administration
Kept the Hamiltonian system intact with the exception of excise taxes

Maintained the Bank of the U.S.
Retained the mildly protective tariff
Did not tamper with Federalist programs for funding national debt at par and assuming Revolutionary War debts of the states.

As president, Jefferson became more of a pragmatist than an idealist

Wanted to assuage the political rift between both parties

Reversals of Federalist policies

Defended rights provided by Bill of Rights and Constitution

Pardoned the 10 "martyrs" serving sentences under the Sedition Law
Government returned many fines.
Enacted new naturalization law in 1802; return of 5 year requirement for citizenship

Alien and Sedition Laws had expired in 1801; parts that were still in effect were removed.

Persuaded Congress to repeal Hamilton’s excise taxes
Succeeded in substantially reducing the national debt while balancing the budget by cutting government spending.

"The government that governs least, governs best."
Government for the people
Sec. of State Albert Gallatin, "Watchdog of the Treasury" agreed with Jefferson that the debt was more a curse than a blessing.

Debt fell from $80 million to $57 including the Louisiana Purchase.

Ended the graduated property tax imposed by "High Federalists" in 1798.
Reduced Hamilton’s standing army but upheld need for stronger navy.
Emphasized states’ rights
Encouraged development of an agrarian nation

12th Amendment (1804)

Tie vote between presidential candidates of same party could no longer cause confusion as it did in the election of 1800.

Provision: electors had to specify that they were voting for one presidential candidate and one vice presidential candidate.

Jefferson and his VP candidate, Burr, had tied in the 1800 general election

Vote sent to House where Federalists tacitly gave Jefferson the presidency.

Hamilton a major force in the decision and Burr never forgave him.

John Marshall and the Supreme Court

Judiciary Act of 1801

Federalists created 16 new judgeships and other judicial offices

One of last important laws passed by the expiring Federalist Congress.

Adams continued on his last day in office signing commissions of the Federalist "midnight judges."

Jeffersonians charged Federalists were packing judicial branch for life.

Act repealed by the newly elected Republican Congress in 1802.

John Marshall

Appointed as Chief Justice during last days of Adams' term

Most important Chief Justice in U.S. history; served for about 34 years

Continued handing down Federalist decisions long after Federalist party was dead.

Marbury vs Madison, 1803

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"Midnight judge" William Marbury sued (on the behalf of several other judges) for the delivery of his commission that was being held up by the new secretary of state Madison.

Madison was ordered by Jefferson to withhold appointments of Judiciary Act of 1801

Marshall knew Jefferson administration would not enforce a writ by the Court to deliver the commission to Marbury.

Case was dismissed, thus avoiding a direct political showdown between the Supreme Court and the Executive branch.

Judicial Review

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Marshall ruled that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789, upon which Marbury had based his appeal, was unconstitutional by giving the Court the right to enforce appointments (only the executive branch had right to enforce the law)

Marshall gave Supreme Court power to rule a law by Congress unconstitutional

Contrasted with the Kentucky Resolutions where Jefferson had claimed states had that right (due to compact theory).

Power of Supreme Court greatly enhanced

Impeachment of Samuel Chase -- Jefferson threatens the Supreme Court

Jeffersonians outraged that judicial review buttressed the power of a Federalist-dominated Supreme Court.
Jefferson supported congressional Republicans in their desire to remove the highly partisan Federalist justice Samuel Chase
Early 1804, impeachment charges against Chase were voted by the House of Reps.
Senate failed to convict Chase in early 1805

Evidence clear that judge had not been guilty of "high crimes and misdemeanors", only of bad manners and unrestrained partisanship.

Significance: Henceforth, no attempts to reshape the Court by impeachment

Grounds for impeachment would be based on criminal charges, not political partisanship

Reassured the independence of the judiciary and the separation of powers in gov't.

Tripolitan War

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Initially, Jefferson reduced the size of the U.S. army due to distrust of large standing armies and also reduced the navy.

Plundering of U.S. ships by pirates of the North African states led to increased military.

North African states included Algiers, Tripoli, Morocco, and Tunis
North African states had long made a national industry of blackmailing and plundering merchant ships in the Mediterranean.

Federalists had been forced to buy protection especially from Algeria.

At exorbitant blackmail prices, war seemed cheaper than peace in 1801.

Pasha of Tripoli declared war on the U.S.

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Jefferson sent small U.S. navy to the "shores of Tripoli" -- led by Stephen Decatur.

After 4 long years of fighting, a peace treaty was extorted from Tripoli in 1805
Punishment of other North African corsairs continued off and on until War of 1812.

Jefferson ordered built up a fleet of small gunboats (later contemptuously called the "mosquito fleet") that later proved ineffective during the War of 1812

Westward Expansion

The Louisiana Purchase

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In 1800, Napoleon induced Spain to cede Louisiana region to France

French in 1802 withdrew the right of deposit at New Orleans guaranteed under the Pinckney Treaty of 1795
Napoleon seemed to pose a possible military threat to U.S., perhaps requiring U.S. to make alliances with other European powers.

Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris (to join with U.S. minister Robert R. Livingston)

Instructed to buy New Orleans and as much land to the east in the Floridas as possible for $10 million.
If negotiations failed, they were to strike up an alliance with Great Britain.

Napoleon decided to sell all Louisiana and abandon his dream of a New World Empire

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Failed to reconquer sugar-rich island of Santo Domingo

Toussaint L'Ouverture led ex-slaves in failed bloody revolt
Thousands of French troops died of malaria during the struggle.

Decided to use sale of Louisiana as revenue for his conquest of Europe.
Did not want to be distracted by the U.S. as an enemy in North America.

Although Livingston initially negotiated for New Orleans, the entire Louisiana Territory purchased for $15 million.

Jefferson accepted treaty, albeit reluctantly

As a strict constructionist, the Constitution did not authorize the President to negotiate treaties incorporating huge new expanses of land into the union.
Secretly proposed an amendment to the Constitution to provide for such an act.

Advisors urged Jefferson to act now before Napoleon changed his mind.

Jefferson reluctantly submitted the treaties to the Senate while privately admitting the purchase as unconstitutional.

Senate promptly ratified the treaty
Land-hungry Americans jubilantly supported the purchase

Federalist opposition (typical of "loyal opposition" up to the present)

Ironically argued for strict construction: President did not have power to purchase LA.
Ironically claimed LA would cost too much especially when balancing budget was a goal
Real reason: worried that western lands would be loyal to Jefferson’s Republicans..

Most important land purchase in U.S. History

Doubled the size of the U.S.for only 3 cents an acre
U.S. received western half of richest river valley in the world
Guaranteed Mississippi waterway to the Gulf of Mexico including New Orleans
Paved way for westward expansion

Accelerated rise of U.S. as economic & political power
Indian Removal: By 1890, all remaining Native Americans in the region would be on reservations.
John Jacob Astor formed the American Fur Company in 1808 in order to tap the newly purchased territory; eventually resulted in U.S. claim to Oregon.
Set dubious precedent: Acquisition of foreign territory and peoples by purchase.

Ended European expansion in North America (for the most part)
Avoided a possible war with France and an entangling alliance with Britain.
Boosted national unity

Federalists now became a mere sectional party in New England
West much more loyal to the union as Jefferson seen as a hero.

Exploration of Louisiana Territory

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Jefferson interested in exploring the new Louisiana Territory

Selected Meriwether Lewis & William Clark to explore region (1804-1806)

Trail extended from the Missouri River through the Rockies and along the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean.
Sacajawea, a Shoshoni female, became a scout & translator when L&C reached Bismark, SD for the winter; crucial in helping their expedition to succeed.

Expedition bolstered U.S. claim to Oregon; further opened West to Indian trade & exploration.

Zebulon M. Pike

In 1805-1806, explored territory near headwaters of the Mississippi
1806-1807, went into Colorado & New Mexico; sighted Pike’s Peak

Spain grew wary of increased settlement in these Spanish regions.

Essex Junto and Aaron Burr (1804)

Burr had run for President in 1796 and 1800 (became Jefferson’s vice president in 1801)

Essex Junto: A small group of Federalist extremists plotted for New England's secession from the union and the creation of a seven-state northern confederacy (including NY, NJ, MA, CT, RI, NH, VT)

New England a highly sectional Federalist stronghold threatened by Jefferson dominance & the Louisiana Purchase which would lead to western expansion.
Plotters courted Hamilton to run for governor of NY in 1804 and then lead the secessionist movement.

Hamilton refused—did not see Louisiana as the problem, only the expansion of democracy.

Plotters then courted Vice President Burr.
Hamilton led opposition to Burr’s NY gubernatorial campaign and Burr was defeated

Hamilton then exposed the plot at a meeting of leading Federalists in Albany
Burr promptly challenged him to a duel and killed him in a 1804 duel.

Burr Conspiracy

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In 1806, Burr attempted to separate the western part of the U.S. from the eastern part and unite it with to-be-conquered Spanish territory west of the Louisiana Territory and perhaps in northern Mexico.

Burr was initially supported by James Wilkinson, military governor of upper Louisiana, who later exposed the plot to Jefferson

Burr arrested in 1806 in Natchez and tried next year at Richmond, VA.

John Marshall dropped the case when two witnesses for gov't couldn't be found.

Jefferson Re-elected in 1804 (d. Charles Pinckney 162 - 14)

Incorporated many Federalist principles during his first administration; deflated Federalist appeal.

International peace, territorial expansion, and inexpensive, unobtrusive government made the Republicans the obvious choice in the election.

Yazoo Land Controversy, 1804

Jefferson’s opponents, led by his cousin, John Randolph ("Quids"), accused Jefferson of complicity in controversy following Georgia’s cession of western lands to federal gov’t.

Georgia wrongfully had granted millions of acres prior to turning land over to the federal gov’t.

4 land companies had bribed GA legislators for millions of acres in land grants

Jefferson and Madison attempted to repay the new (corrupt) land owners for lands ceded to federal gov’t, believing they were entitled to compensation for turning over the lands.

Randolph and his followers condemned Jefferson & Madison

Significance:

Created strife within Republican party and weakened Jefferson during 2nd term.

Randolph’s harangue of Jefferson (about the Yazoo controversy) during impeachment of Samuel Chase resulted in a number of Jeffersonian Republicans voting against Randolph’s prosecution of Chase.

Napoleonic Wars (continuing in 1803) led to harassment of U.S. shipping

By 1805, British controlled the seas but France controlled the European continent.

British began seizing American ships

Sought to end U.S. practice of importing French goods into U.S. & reexporting them as neutral cargo.

Berlin Decree, 1806: Napoleon decided to starve Britain out by closing the ports of the continent to British commerce and outlawing all trade with British Isles.

American ships trading with Britain would be confiscated by France.

England, in response, issued the "order in council" (Beginning in 1806; continued in 1807)

Closed ports under French continental control to foreign shipping
Neutrals (e.g. U.S.) might enter Napoleonic ports only if they first stopped in Britain.

Britain encouraged these ships, including American ships, be inspected and loaded with British goods before continuing on the Continent.

British sought to strangle French trade, not French imports.
American ships that didn’t stop at Britain prior to entering the Continent would be confiscated.

Milan Decree, 1807 – Napoleon’s retaliation to "order in council"

Any neutral ship entering a British port, or submitting to a British warship at sea, would be confiscated by if it attempted to enter a Continental port.
Many American shippers took chances by continuing trade & gaining handsome profits.

British Impressment (Impressment = forcible enlistment of sailors)

6,000 Americans impressed from 1808-1811; Many died or were killed in service.
British complained U.S. enticed British sailors to desert to U.S.merchant marine or navy.

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (June 21, 1807)

British commander of the royal frigate, H.M.S. Leopard, demanded surrender of four alleged deserters on the U.S.S. Chesapeake; American captain refused.
British fired at the Chesapeake: 3 dead; 18 wounded; Chesapeake limped back to port.
American reaction the most hostile since XYZ affair 10 years earlier.

British Foreign Office admitted its error

Jefferson, nevertheless, used the incident to incite calls for U.S. action.

Forbade British ships to dock at American ports.
Ordered state governors to call up as much as 100,000 militiamen.

Embargo Act of 1807

Forbade export of all goods from U.S.

Jefferson got Congress to hastily pass the act
Reasoned that a U.S. embargo would force Britain & France to respect its rights.
Loose construction of the Constitution

Congress' power to "regulate commerce" meant it could stop exports.

Undermined Jefferson’s states’ rights philosophy

Embargo Act was a disaster to the U.S. economy

In 1807 U.S. exports = $108 million ; in 1808 = $22 million

New England trade most affected
South & West: mountains of cotton, tobacco, & grain unsold

Embargo probably more damaging to U.S. than the Brirish & French threat
Illegal trade mushroomed as a result (especially along Canadian border)

Jefferson got Congress to pass harsh enforcement laws.

Viewed by many as tyrannical.
New England again talked of secession

Congress repealed the embargo in March 1, 1809 (3 days before Jefferson left office)

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 replaced the Embargo Act

Formally reopened trade with all nations of the world except Fance and Britain
Remained U.S. policy until War of 1812.

Reasons for embargo's failure

U.S. overestimated British dependence on American trade & underestimated British resolve.
Embargo not in effect long enough or administered tightly
Embargo Act proved to be three times as costly as war

U.S. lost opportunity to build a strong navy

Worsened the conflict between Britain & France

Britain hit harder by the Embargo; French applauded it
France seized American ships in French ports; "cooperating" w/ Embargo Act

Northeastern Federalists undermined the Embargo through smuggling activities.

Serendipity of the Embargo

New England forced to become self-sufficient once again.

Old factories reopened; new ones built
Foundations of America's modern industrial might laid behind the wall of the embargo, nonintercourse, and the War of 1812.

Jefferson, a critic of industrialization, ironically may have contributed more than Hamilton to its rise in the U.S.

The Embargo wins but too late

British importers and manufacturers suffered severe losses especially those dependent on U.S. cotton.
Thousands of angry unemployed British workers affected by the embargo petitioned Parliament in 1812 to repeal its Orders in Council.
Irony: 2 days before Congress declared war in June 1812, the British foreign secretary announced the suspension of the Orders in Council.

Election of 1808 impacted by the Embargo Act issue

Federalists gained ground in the presidential election although the Republican, James Madison, defeated Charles Pinckney
Federalists made significant gains in Congress (although still in minority) and gained control of several state legislatures.